As this blog is devoted to a campaign based on the wars of Rome and the Byzantine Empire I have listed below some of the key events and people that affected the Roman/Byzantine world. The organisation and listing of these dates aren't ones that a general historian would necessarily choose, and indeed the exact dates that some of them occurred aren't necessarily known, but they provide an understanding to how I've structured the campaign.
You will see from the Eras Chart in the Campaign Rules and from Appendices One and Three that I have broken down the campaign into seven Roman and six Byzantine Eras, so thirteen in total. These Eras are largely based on major organisational changes in Roman and Byzantine armies and have been used by designers of ancient wargame rulesets for many years as a basis for categorising their sets' Roman and Byzantine armies.
For our purposes the history of Rome can be broken down into four over-arching periods:
- 753-509 BCE Kingdom of Rome
In this early period of Rome's existence its army was made up of the classes that had property, which gave the soldiers a stake in defending the city. It was largely composed of sturdy peasants deployed in a heavy infantry phalanx led by the 1st class, the knight class formed the cavalry.
- 509-27 BCE Roman Republic
In this period of five centuries the Roman army transitioned from a single phalanx of spearmen to the large professional armies that conquered Europe and Asia Minor, defeating all the major Mediterranean powers along the way.
The armies composition remained based on heavy infantry, but its organisation was reformed several times over the centuries as the Roman state expanded, absorbed subjugated peoples and encountered new enemies. Despite its success the pressures on the propertied classes from defending such a large empire eventually resulted in the abandonment of the old recruitment methods, restricting recruitment to propertied classes only, to include all Roman and allied citizens.
- 27 BCE-476 CE Roman Empire
When Augustus became emperor he reorganised and regularised the many units into standardised formations. The army was still the heavy infantry force it had always been but over time as both the empire itself, and the enemy armies encountered, evolved it slowly changed to incorporate new troop types - auxiliaries, cavalry and artillery and finally whole regiments (to use a modern word) of Foederati, or mercenary, troops; as well as adopting new tactics.
- 476-1475 CE Byzantine Empire
The collapse of the Western Roman Empire refocused the remaining part on defeating its enemies in the East, many of whom were largely mounted on horses. The army quickly developed into a highly trained force of mounted lancers and horse archers that were to defend the empire for the better part of a thousand years. In the latter years the army was supplemented by various new units such as the Varangian Guard and the Vardariots.
Timeline by Era
Legendary date of the founding of the Kingdom of Rome by Romulus who became the first king.
Multiple wars are fought with other Latin and Etruscan cities/tribes for several centuries.
This period isn't included in the campaign, I decided not to start the campaign until 509 BCE for two reasons (a) the wars in this period are both badly documented and also fairly small scale affairs that don't translate well into big battle rules, and (b) they were generally quite straightforward fights between solid phalanxes of spearmen. As the following Era also has the chance for a number of similar battles I considered that it would be a touch too tedious if campaign players were required to fight too many.
509 BCE Roman Republic
The Era starts with the expulsion of the last King - Tarquinius Superbus and the establishment of the Republic. Rome is now led by two annually elected magistrates called Consuls, however in periods of crisis the Roman Senate could and did elect a sole Dictator to rule for a maximum period six months.
Tarquinius Superbus made several attempts at regaining power but failed. In the fifth century BCE the Romans succeeded in throwing off Etruscan domination and establishing a military ascendancy over neighbouring Latin tribes. In this Era, as in nearly the whole Republican period, the Roman army was based very much on the Roman class system, only propertied classes were allowed to fight until the last century BCE.
The campaign starts with typical phalanx style warfare between lines of opposing heavy spearmen, little cavalry was available in this era. Victory generally went to the side that could outlast last its opponent in the pushing matches that generally ensued.
400 BCE
Appointment of Furius Camillus as Consul who commences major structural changes to the Roman army including reorganising the Legions into four lines and rearming the Hastati in imitation of latest Etruscan practice - with the Pilum heavy javelin. Cavalry are only a small proportion of the Consular Roman army.
Numerous wars are fought with neighbouring Apennine hill tribes and Latin peoples, as well as with the Cisalpine Gauls, the Etruscans, the Oscans such as the Campanians and Samnites, and the Greeks of Magna Graecia.
For the wargamer this period allows for some exciting battles between the Romans, just after they adopted the triple line of heavy infantry, and the Celtic world of ferocious warbands and chariots, as well as the classical Greek phalanx used by the Etruscans to the north and the Greeks of Southern Italy and Sicily. This period also gives wargamers the opportunity to fight battles between the Roman and Macedonian fighting systems perfected by Philip II and Alexander the Great in the form of the wars against Pyrrhus.
383 BCE
Rome sacked by the Cisalpine Gauls under King Brennus, only the Capitoline hill holds out, saved by cackling geese.
338 BCE
All Latin resistance to Roman domination is finally ended.
321 BCE
"Battle" of the Caudine Forks - During the 2nd Samnite War a Roman army is outmanoeuvred and forced to surrender. The Roman soldiers are allowed to go free by "walking under the yoke" - a great humiliation. To show their enemies that honour means more than life Rome rejects all the freed soldiers, refusing them entry to the city.
280 BCE
280 BCE - 275 BCEEtruscan resistance is crushed, Etruria is added to the Roman state.
Pyrrhus is called in to help defend the Greek city states of south Italy from Rome and the Sicilian Greeks from Carthage, but to no avail, after three drawn and bloody battles Pyrrhus returns to Greece - Rome subsequently conquers all south Italy.
c.275 BCE
Following the war with Pyrrhus the Romans makes further organisational changes that mainly affects the heavy infantry. The Principes are rearmed with the pilum along with the Hastati and the proportion of Triarii is reduced but from now on sometimes not even deployed for battle. Fifty per cent of the standard Consular army is now made up of Rome's Italian allies, drilled and equipped in Roman fashion. whilst allies contribute more cavalry it still only makes up a small proportion of the army.
This period sees the time of the great expansion of the Roman Republic beyond Italy. The wargamer has the choice of fighting Roman armies not only against all the peoples of the western Mediterranean, including the Carthaginians led by one of histories greatest captains- Hannibal - amongst others, but also against the Macedonian successor empires of the eastern Mediterranean. The end of the period also sees the first wars fought by Rome against the Germans as the Cimbri and Teutones appear on the scene.
264 - 202 BCE
The Romans use a brewing war between the Syracusans and the Mamertines in Sicily to obtain a toehold on the island leading to the start of the Punic wars between Rome and Carthage. By the end of the 1st Rome has taken control of Sardinia, Corsica and most of Sicily as well as securing mastery of the seas.
In the 2nd, after many campaigns, in particular the desperate defence of Italy against Hannibal during which various Italiote peoples join the Carthaginian cause, Roman armies conquer all Carthaginian territories apart from their homeland in Africa; Hannibal flees to the East.
Roman armies and generals benefit from the years of hard fighting, the Roman army becomes a highly professional military machine.
216 BCE
Battle of Cannae - Hannibal uses double envelopment strategy to wipe out a Roman army twice the size of his army in one of the most famous battles of ancient history.
202 BCE
Battle of Zama - Publius Cornelius Scipio defeats Hannibal in North Africa, ending the 2nd Punic war.
191 BCE
Roman armies conquer Cisalpine Gaul, the entire Italian peninsula, including Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily, is now controlled by Rome and providing man-power to its armies.
214 - 146 BCE
Even whilst fighting Carthage in the west Rome's attentions turn east, resulting in wars with Illyria, various Greek states, four wars with Macedonia, Seleucia and the Galatians, all of which ended up, to a greater or lesser extent, as Roman provinces or client states.
146 BCE Corinth is besieged and destroyed.
201 - 121 BCE
Rome continues to expand in the West - wars with the Celtiberians and Lusitanians in the Iberian peninsula and the Gallic tribes of southern Transalpine Gaul. Carthage, forced to rebel against constant Numidian encroachments launches the 3rd Punic war but is finally defeated. Southern Transalpine Gaul and Africa are added as provinces.
146 BCE Carthage is destroyed
113 BCE
Roman forces encounter German tribes for the first time, with meandering migrations South by the Cimbri and Teutones, leading to several heavy Roman defeats.
105 BCE
In order to deal with further invasions by the Cimbri and Teutones Consul Gaius Marius reforms the Roman army, the Triarii are rearmed in identical fashion to the first two lines and the Cohort system is adopted. He also starts recruiting from the 'Capita Censi', or property-less Roman citizens, for the first time. Deficiencies in Roman armies are made up from troops from client states - particularly cavalry and light troops.
The implications of this are to spell the end of the Republic as soldiers are recruited with no loyalty to anyone other than their commander, thus beginning the process of the creation of Roman armies prepared to follow their leaders even when they turn against the state.
This era sees the conquering of most of the remaining territories that are to form the Roman Empire for the next few centuries. Roman armies subjugate Gaul, the southern Balkans, Egypt and Asia Minor. For the wargamer it allows for battles between the Romans, led by such well known historical figures as Julius Caesar, Pompey and Mark Anthony, and the occupants of all these territories, as well as enemies beyond the borders such as the German tribes and the Armenians and Parthians to the east.
This period allows players to expand their Roman armies to include troops from various Mediterranean and northern European peoples who were used to fill gaps in the composition of Roman armies which were otherwise almost entirely heavy infantry at this point. It is also the period when the first great Roman civil wars occur, enabling the wargamer to refight the first battles between Roman armies.
Various major wars are fought with external enemies in this Era:
- Wars with Mithridates VI of Pontus and Tigranes of Armenia in Asia Minor - eventually leading to the Roman conquest of Asia Minor and Armenia.
- Julius Caesar's wars with the Gauls - leading to the creation of the provinces of Transalpine Gaul and Germany west of the Rhine; and an excursion into Brittannia.
- Wars with Seleucia - leading to the conquest of Syria
- Wars with Parthia - Crassus and his army are annihilated at Carrhae 53 BCE
- War with the Kushites.
- War with Kingdom of Numidia - it becomes a province.
There are various internal wars in the period including:
- The wars between the Populares (the Marian faction) and Optimates (Sulla and Pompey).
- The Social wars - Italian citizens outside Rome demand and eventually obtain equal rights to Romans.
- The wars of the first and second triumvirates - Caesar wins the first and is then assassinated when he succeeds in making himself Dictator for life. Octavius (Caesar's adopted heir), Mark Anthony and Lepidus win the second against Caesar's assassins.
- Octavius defeats Mark Anthony and Cleopatra, and conquers Egypt.
27 BCE Roman Empire
Octavius becomes Rome's first Emperor taking the name Augustus. He reforms and standardises the army, distinguishing between Legions and Auxilia. Reliance on mercenary troops ends.
This, the first era of the Roman Empire still has plenty of opportunity for gamers to refight a multitude of wars against neighbours as the Roman expansion finally grinds to a halt and the last major provinces are added to the Roman world. Roman armies begin to include various new troop types - Auxiliary infantry and cavalry. Additionally, several civil wars are fought between Romans competing for the top spot of Imperator.
Further invasions and provinces are added to Rome:
- 47 CE Brittannia
- 69 CE Judea
- 101 CE Dacia - the Empire reaches it's greatest extent.
In addition to the above the Romans attempted to conquer:
- western Arabia in 26-24 BCE;
- Germany , east of the Rhine in 12 BCE to 16 CE;
- central Europe in 164-180 CE (triggering the Marcomannic wars);
but didn't succeed.
Wars are fought with German tribes, Sarmatians, Dacians and the Parthians. Whilst Dacia is added to Roman territory Germany east of the Rhine remains outside.
9 CE
A Roman army commanded by Varus is annihilated by German tribes in the Battle of the Teutoburg forest after being betrayed by Arminius aka Herman.
60/61 CE
Boudiccan revolt - Battle of Watling Street ends in death of Boudicca and her supporters
83 CE
Battle of Mons Graupius - Caledonians defeated but Caledonia not conquered.
193 CE Middle Empire
The crisis of the third century sees many external wars and civil wars, emperors rapidly come and go.
The number of mounted units is expanded and the concept of reserve mounted field armies is born after wars on the frontiers stretch the Empire's resources.
As well old enemies new enemies appear:
- The Sassanid Persian dynasty takes over from the Parthian Arcasid dynasty in the east. Looking back to the days of Persian greatness, it is even more aggressive than its predecessor.
- Goths appear in the steppes and Balkan peninsula.
- Franks and Vandals, amongst many others, appear in Germany.
Whilst the Eastern frontier, in particular is fluid and moves back and forth as wars with Parthia, Persia and Palmyra result in victories and defeats, no substantial or lasting new territories are added to the Empire from this point.
Wars fought by the Romans in this period change their character to ones of desperate defence. Externally new enemies appear, internally civil strife continues. Wargamers get the opportunity to add further troop types to their Roman armies as the legions become mini-combined arms armies in their own right. Roman cavalry also evolves into various different types designed to counter different foes.
251 CE
Battle of Abritus - Romans suffer a major defeat in Moesia at the hands of the Goths and allies. The Emperor Decius becomes the first Emperor to be killed by a foreign enemy along with his son and co-emperor Herennius Etruscus..
260 CE
Battle of Edessa. The Romans are defeated by the Sassanid Persians under Shapur I. The Emperor Valerian becomes the first Emperor to be captured in battle; he is reportedly repeatedly humiliated thereafter by being used as a footstool until his death four years later.
271-275 CE
Fear in Rome resulting from Alemanni incursions into Italy lead to new walls being built around Rome.
309 CE Late Empire
After becoming sole Emperor in 309 CE Constantine reorganises the Roman army, reducing unit sizes and distinguishing between frontier troops and mobile field armies in the rear. He splits the Empire, establishing a new Eastern capital on the site of a small town on the Bosporus called Byzantium, renaming it Constantinopolis. Christianity takes firm root both within and outside the Empire.
The pressures of many wars and rebellions along with plagues leads to the increasing use of bodies of foreign mercenaries in the Roman army, particularly in the West where whole tribes are allowed to settle inside the Empire's borders in areas denuded of population by plague and famine.
The appearance of the Huns in Europe in the early 5th century proves to be a major catalyst to wholesale upheaval and movement of Germanic and Gothic tribes on Rome's borders, resulting in many rebellions and invasions of the Empire, particularly in the Balkans and the West.
In the 5th century Roman emperors become figureheads as power is seized by warlords who style themselves as "Patricians".
For the wargamer fighting battles with/against Roman armies begins to take on a different flavour as infantry units become smaller and cavalry takes on a more dominant role, both in Roman armies and in various of its opponents, with the Huns, Persians and Ostrogoths amongst others. The ability of the gamer to co-ordinate the different arms becomes paramount in order to win battles. In addition substantial proportions of Roman armies are now comprised of whole units of mercenary 'Foederati' fighting in their own styles, adding even more flavour and challenge to fighting a successful battle.
Major battles are fought against the Sassanid Persians, initially with success but eventually leading to great losses.
378 CE
Battle of Adrianopolis. The Romans suffer another major defeat at the hands of a Visigothic and Ostrogothic alliance; Emperor Valens killed.
410 CE
Rome is sacked for the second time in its history by the Goths under Alaric.
451 CE - 453 CE
Attila's invasion of Gaul with his confederation of Huns, Ostrogoths, Gepids, Heruls, Ripaurian Franks, Burgundians etc. is stopped by Aetius commanding the Romans, Visigoths, Salian Franks, Alans and others at the titanic 451 CE Battle of the Catalaunian Plain; Attila is forced to retreat and dies two years later. The confederation, only held together by fear, falls apart rapidly thereafter.
455 CE
Rome is sacked for the third time by the Vandals, operating via ships from North Africa.
476 CE
The Patrician Odoacer overthrows the last Western Roman Emperor to make himself ruler of Italy.
Despite finally defeating Attila and his Hunnic confederation in 451 CE, within twenty-five years the pressures in the West prove too much, it is overrun by Franks in Gaul, Goths in Spain and Italy and Vandals in North Africa. The Western Empire is lost; Britannia, now cut-off, is abandoned and left to fend for itself against incursions from the Picts to the North, Irish raids and Saxon pirate attacks.
476 CE Byzantine Empire
With the Western Empire gone the Eastern Empire, whilst forever still regarding itself as the Roman Empire, slowly transitions away from its Latin beginnings in Constantinopolis towards its Greek speaking, or Hellenic, cultural aristocracy. Whilst the changes are slow and incremental, by the 7th century the Empire establishes a distinctly different identity from its Roman past; for this reason historians now call it the Byzantine Empire.
The army transforms away from a largely infantry force, cavalry becomes the dominant arm.
Despite having to cope with continued Persian pressure, Emperor Justinian I begins efforts to reconquer Western provinces. He sends expeditions to Vandal North Africa, Gothic Italy, Sicily and Southern Spain, recovering several lost provinces.
The wargamer is presented with refighting battles with an entirely different flavour to what has gone before. Roman/Byzantine armies are now smaller and, with their offensive units being horse-borne, were more agile compared to the armies of previous centuries as are its opponents. Entirely different skills are required to win battles compared to earlier eras.
568 CE
Italy is regained then the north is lost again as the Lombards invade.
568 CE
The Avars and Slavic tribes appear in the Balkans.
578 CE
Maurikios reforms the army, standardising regiments of the armoured mounted lancers and horse archers that are to become the staple troop-type of the Byzantine army through the centuries ahead.
Major wars are fought with the Lombards, Sassanid Persians, Slavs and Avars, the Empire struggles to hold its territories particularly in Italy and the Balkans.
The Muslim Arabs appear on the scene destroying the Persian Empire and defeating the Byzantines - permanently taking Syria and Egypt.
The continued evolution of Byzantine armies by Maurikios and Heraklius present players with the new fighting style of the Roman East - units of mounted lancers and horse archers now predominate, though infantry units still play an important part. The new army enjoys periods of great success however large chunks of the Empire are still invaded and pared away by new foes.
This period allows wargamers to fight battles with adversaries both old and new. The last titanic struggles with the Sassanid Persians plus battles with Slavic tribes and the Avars and the Moslem Arabs set on carving themselves out a new empire.
626 CE
Failed siege of Constantinople by the Persians and Avars
636 CE
Battle of the Yarmuk river in Syria - the Byzantine army is defeated by the Moslem Arabs, leading to the complete loss of Syria and Egypt and saw the start of Arab intrusions into North Africa.
650 CE
The Byzantine Empire is divided into Themes, each with its own army, to better enable it to fight against its enemies.
Wars are fought on all fronts by enemies new and old, Constantinople is besieged several times and territories are lost and regained but the Empire eventually manages to hold its own except in North Africa and Sicily which are further lost to the Moslem Arabs. The Bulgars appear in the Balkans, taking over from the Avars as the main threat and the Rus begin raiding over the Black Sea.
674 - 675 CE
First siege of Constantinople by the Arabs - it was a major defeat for the Arabs on land and sea leading to the signing of a fifty year peace treaty.
717 - 718 CE
Second and last siege of Constantinople by the Arabs - the Arab fleets were destroyed and the Arab army was too, with help from the Bulgars. This victory enabled Byzantium to withstand attacks by Moslem armies for several centuries.
740 CE
The army establishes regular standing regiments, the Tagmata, to be the core of field armies capable of being rushed to assist threatened Themes.
863 CE
Battle of Lalakaon - the Abbasid Arabs are defeated and subsequently placed on the defensive, relieving the pressure on the Byzantine Eastern front and enabling the Byzantines to concentrate on the European and Balkan front.
960 CE
For several decades the Empire goes through a period of resurgence, recovering many territories. The First Bulgarian Empire was destroyed in the process. New units are formed in particular the Varangian Guard who fight on foot and mounted heavily armoured Kataphraktoi fighting in close formation wedges.
The players are able to refight the battles of the Byzantine resurgence against the states that have been putting pressure on the Byzantine Empire for several centuries as well as newcomers such as the Rus'.
971 CE
Battle of Alexandretta - first battle between the Fatimids and the Byzantine Empire - a victory for Byzantium.
1018 CE
First Bulgarian Empire defeated - becoming a Byzantine province.
1048 CE
First encounter with the Seljuk Turks.
1071CE
The Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Manzikert at the hands of the Turkish Seljuk Empire leads to the loss of large territories in Anatolia.
1071 CE
Despite numerous battles Byzantium proves unable to hang on to the Anatolian highlands, which are taken by the Turkish Seljuk Sultanate of Rum; it makes Nicaea its capital.
The twelfth century sees constant see-sawing warfare with invasions by the Sicilian Normans, Pechenegs, Seljuks and Hungarians; territories are both lost and recovered.
In addition to its traditional foes the 11th century sees the rise of the western knight leading to the appearance of armies of hard-charging mounted adventurers seeking land and plunder wherever it could be found, including the lands of the Byzantine Empire.
1185 CE
Uprising by the Bulgarian Asen brothers leads to independence and the formation of the Second Bulgarian Empire.
Battle of Demetritzes - the Sicilian Norman invasion of Greece is repulsed and the Norman advance on Constantinople comprehensively defeated.
1203- 1204 CE
This era sees the starts of the Latin Christian Crusades, many of which pass though Byzantine territory; however, despite the First Crusade recovering Nicaea for Byzantium from the Turks, the era ends with the siege and eventual loss of Constantinople to the Fourth Crusade.
1204 CE
Following the capture of Constantinople the Crusaders carve out an empire for themselves known as the Latin Empire, plus several other smaller Crusader states spring up. Various states are created by Byzantine noble families from the unconquered remains of the Byzantine Empire; the largest of which are:
- The Empire of Nicaea
- The Empire of Trebizond
- The Despotate of Epirus
- The Despotate of the Morea
The endgame for the Byzantine Empire provides players the opportunity to game battles between both the fractured Byzantine successor states as well as the adjacent states that begin to pick over the bones of what remains. New troop types appear as technology advances such as heavily armoured knights and gunpowder weapons.
The Empire of Nicaea successfully resists Turkish pressure, thereby maintaining its territorial integrity as it tries several times to recapture Constantinople by siege.
1261 CE
Constantinople eventually recaptured by treachery.
The Empire is wracked by constant civil wars whilst gradually losing more possessions in Europe and Asia Minor to the Venetians, Genoese and Bulgars as well as the Ottoman Turkish Empire who have replaced the Seljuks as the main Turkish threat. Rhodes is lost to the Hospitallers.
1302 CE - 1305 CE
Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos hires the Catalan Company to fight the Ottoman Turks. They score several victories but eventually turn on the Byzantines after their leader is assassinated by them.
1384 CE
The final years sees nearly all remaining Byzantine lands outside Constantinople fall to the Ottoman Turkish Empire.
1453 CE
After several sieges Constantinople falls to the Ottomans. Several small rump states are mopped up by 1475 CE - Rome is finally conquered.
The last descendant of the Eastern Roman Emperor who died defending the walls in 1453 CE ended his days begging the Pope, or anyone else who would listen, in Rome for assistance to retake Constantinople from the Turks; assistance that never came.
If you are interested in discovering more about the wars and battles fought by the Romans a good place to start is : List of Roman wars and battles - Wikipedia and for the Byzantine period: List of Byzantine battles - Wikipedia
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